American desire to modernise third world countries fuelled the Vietnam Research Paper

American desire to modernise third world countries fuelled the Vietnam war - Research Paper Example Therefore third world countries such as Vietnam rebelled because it needed more freedom and political independence (Darby 2007). Mark Berger, in his article: â€Å"Decolonisation, modernization and nation building† explains that the US fused pacification and modernization theory in its search for the appropriate combination of civil and security reforms in the hamlets of Vietnam. The US sought a coherent plan to jumpstart the economic and social development in Vietnam. The military was perceived to play a major role in modernization and pacification. This was because the US believed that security was a precondition for growth and sustained development (Escobar 2005). As such, the US built and strengthened the Vietnamese army over the period of modernization and economic intervention. The army was trained in US military bases on how to keep peace and fight insecurities in all areas of the country. The US combined efforts with the United Nations Security Council in strengthening the army. This resulted in capable armed forces that kept the country secure. With time, the Vietnamese army became powerful and needed to gain autonomy from the US policies and intervention. The army manufactured its own military weapons and was able to fund its own programs. This made it easy to wage the Vietnam War and resist US imperialism. The article further argues that modernization theory gained policy and academic prominence in Vietnam.

Describe the mechanisms by which astrocytes control the neutronal Essay

Describe the mechanisms by which astrocytes control the neutronal environment and, using appropriate examples, discuss their importance for neuronal function in health and disease - Essay Example In this article, the role of astrocytes in maintaining the neuronal environment in the brain has been explored with reference to health and disease in human beings. Astrocytes are a type glial cells in the brain and the spinal cord which are star-shaped. They are also known as astrocytic glial cells. They serve many functions, the most important of which are nutrient supply to nervous tissue, biochemical support of endothelial cells which form the blood-brain barrier, maintenance of the balance of the extracellular ions and taking part in the process of repair and regeneration of the central nervous system following various injuries (Magistretti and Ransom, 2008). There re mainly 3 forms of astrocytes. They are fibrous astrocytes, protoplasmic astrocytes and radial astrocytes. Fibrous astrocytes are basically positioned in the white matter. They have few organelles. The cellular processes are 50-60 in number, long and unbranched (Magistretti and Ransom, 2008). When in close proximity, they physically connect the cells to the outerside of the capillary wall. The protoplasmic astrocytes are mainly found in the grey matter of the brain. In contras t to the fibrous cells, they have many organelles and have short, stubby and severely branched cellular processes. These processes are in contact with the blood vessels and also the pial surface. They also surround the neurons. The end-feet of these astrocytes cover the intraparenchymal surface completely and express glucose transporters Glu T type-1 (Magistretti and Ransom, 2008). Thus these cells predominantly function to take-up glucose. Fibrous astrocytes contain more intermediate filaments than protoplasmic astrocytes. The radial glia are mainly found in the vicinity of the ventricles. While some processes abut the piamater, other processes lie deep inside the gray mater. Some examples of radial astrocytes are Bergmann glia cells and Mueller cells of the retina.

Sustainable competitive advantage

Sustainable competitive advantage 1. Introduction to the Topic: Over the years, the understanding of how a firm can attain and maintain sustainable competitive advantage is major area of research in the field of management. Sustainable competitive advantage is an edge a firm enjoy over its competitors by offering superior values to customer that result in superior profit and growth. Building on these underlined assumption this dissertation the link between a firms success and the competitive advantage. The paper examine the role human resource strategies that leads an organization to enjoy competitive advantage that are sustainable, non-imitable, substantial and that adds superior values to the organization by providing opportunities to the organization to reap the benefits of super profit and market growth. An organisation is regarded as a unified organism that constantly learns and adopts to find better ways of doing its business processes in response to the dynamic environment it faces. Human resource management is a critical area of concern in today dynamic business environment, due to increased competition. It now more difficult to hire and retain highly qualified associates as the growth and profitability of the organization depends on how well the organization managed it human resources. According to Newman and Hodgetts, â€Å"human resource management is the process by which organization ensure the effective use of their associates in the pursuit of both organizational and individual goals† (Newman Hodgetts, 2005). In this paper efforts are made to analyze the varied human resource functions that an organization perform in pursuits of its goals and missions, and how these efforts might lead an organization to competitive advantage, as the success or failure of the organi sation depends on how best the organisation performs its functions as compared to a competitor (Competitive Advantage). In fact the long-term survival of the organisation depends on how best the HR department of the organisation performs its various functions that leads towards creating a competitive advantage over its rivals and how it sustains it. 2. Literature Review: Coff argues that human capital is the key to sustainable advantage because of causal ambiguity and systematic information creating them incomparable (Coff, 1994). According to Boselie and Paauwe (2004), top performing firms has HR professionals who have the main input in the strategic planning. These professionals make possible the change management, shape and manage organisation wide culture, contribute to strategic level decisions, and create market led connectivity of the business process (Boselie Paauwe, 2004). Researchers in the field of strategic HR have emphasised that human resource practices result in superior organisational performance and create sources for continued competitive advantages (Wright, Dunford, Snell, 2001). As the world has become a global village, competing in todays confused environment have posed additional challenges to the HR function in creating the anticipated value to shape and uphold competitive advantages. For effective functioning, HR executives must possess the necessary competencies. That is the possession of HR knowhow which comes from knowing the concepts, communication skills, judgment, research, and practices ofHR (Brockbank, Ulrich, Beatty, 1999) Du Plessis states that HR can play a vital role in the future of an organisation by enacting organisational change to get competitive advantage (Plessis, 2007). He is also of the opinion that resistance to change can serve as an obstacle for successful execution of planned changes, as it encompasses behaviours that may slow down or even terminate a planned organisational change. If the organisation uses an appropriate HR strategy during the period of change, an employee may feel that he is being treated and looked after by the organisation. If such sort of feelings arouse in employees it can change the employees attitude and their resistance towards the planned change. Peters and Waterman in their book â€Å"In search of excellence† says that all the excellent organisations that they have surveyed made efficient use of their HR, by employing sound HR strategies (Peter Waterman, 1982). According to Losey technology is advancing so rapidly that it is forcing organisations to c hange their strategies, in respect to product mix and the way HR is organized and delivered (Losey, 2005). 3. Overview of the Organization: Crossroads Inc. has been formed as a result of merger between Tradco and Hardpharm is a pharmaceutical company that is dedicated to the productions and marketing of quality pharmaceutical products. The merger that we have just is the largest transformation in the history of the organization and provides us with a platform, in terms of capital and other resources, to compete at a higher level. Crossroads Inc. is a medium-sized organisation, with 1,500 workers employed at three sites: one in Scotland, County Durham, and Kent. Crossroads Inc. develops and produces medicines for the global market in competition with industry giants such as Bosch, Pfizer, Lilly, gsk etc. 4. HR Planning Forecasting Planning forecasting in the modern age is a matter of life death for organizations of modern age. The same is true for pharmaceuticals industry. Each every consecutive day new research product is developed, deployed for trails testing. All these effort require skilful, trained and experienced workforce. It is for this reason organization plan and forecast for human resource so as to remain competitive. The HR manager of Crossroads Inc should use the planning forecasting procedures to cope with human resource requirement. The propose HR planning process for Crossroads Inco has been depicted Crossroad Inc can use the process for both short-term as well as long-term basis. Crossroad Inc should continuously monitor the availability of skill workers. For this purpose Crossroad Inc should scan internal environment to find out suitable employee and promote to fill the vacancy, if there are no such employees available, then HR Department should scan external environment for skilled and experienced employees. Once the internal environment along with external environment is scanned, a draft forecast should be prepared. 5. Recruitment and Selection: Once the forecast is developed and approved by the top management, the HR department of Crossroads Inc should start recruitment and selection process to fill the vacancies. Like all good plans, HR Manager of Crossroad Inc should builds employment plans on premises basic assumptions for employment requirement by forecasting three things: The supply of inside candidates; Personnel needs; The supply of outside candidates according to their company requirements. The HR department should first check that either there is any job placement or company is expanding their business so that new jobs are open for new candidates. These issues should be tackled by the HR Manger. If staff is required then the company should try to find them inside the company by upgrading their employees if it not possible then new jobs are created and fill by the outside market. The overall aims of the recruitment and selection process in Crossroad Inc should be to obtain, at minimum cost, the number and quality of employees required to satisfy the needs of staff requirement. The three stages of recruitment and selection in Crossroad Inc should be: Defining requirements: Preparing job descriptions and specifications; deciding terms and conditions of employment; Attracting candidates: Reviewing and evaluating alternative sources of applicants, inside and outside the company, advertising; Selecting candidates: Sifting applications, interviewing, testing, assessing candidates, offering employment, obtaining references; preparing contracts of employment. 6. Training and Development: Training is one of the most important tool any organization using to cope with the rapid change in technology and way of doing business. According to Newman and Hodgetts, â€Å"training is the process of providing associates with specific skills or helping them correct deficiencies in their current performance (Newman Hodgets, 2005). HR department of Crossroads Inc should be responsible for the training and development of existing as well as new coming employees. When a new employee is selected, an orientation of the new employees should be conducted Orientation is basically a one to two hour activity in which the new employees should be informed about the organizational structure, term conditions of employment, the duties of incumbent, the ethical behavioural requirement for the new employee and the so. New or existing employees are trained in HR department via three methods. Employees Handbook Training by concerned department Manager. Training visits to other pharmaceuticals. Tradco tends to largely focus on the needs of the technicians and scientists, and give them right to make decision of employ. However the training programs that HARDPHARM has traditionally used have some problems. In order to reduce the cost, employers are trying to hire labour in with low wage, and then what they have got is low quality staff. Ignoring the development of technology is the main problem. All these people will get together in the future, for the sake of the new company. The period of training should not be specified and should depend on individual circumstances. In some cases it should cover a week and sometimes it should be extended up to 6 months. The process of training should be initiated by first going through the process of training need assessments. The training needs assessment find out the deficiency in the current level of skills the employee possessed and the skills that a job required. For filling up the gape an organization designed its training and development programmes. A planning process is being implemented in which Crossroads Inc can ensure the proper training, awareness and competence development of people. The objective is to provide people with knowledge and skill, which, together with experience, improve their competence and capabilities. Crossroads should establish and maintains a procedure to ensure proper capabilities of personnel working. This includes: Identification of competency needs for personnel performing activities affecting quality. Providing training or take other actions to address identified needs. Evaluating effectiveness of the training provided. Ensuring that employees are aware of the relevance and importance of their activities and how they contribute to the achievement of the quality objectives. Maintaining appropriate records of education, experience, training and qualification. Training needs for Crossroads Inc should be based on the following different methods: Performance Analysis: What tasks the analyst is currently performing? how can the current performance be improved? Is training the best method? Job Task Analysis: What is the best way to do analysis? How can analysis process are broken down into small steps? According to Newman and Hodgetts development is the process of â€Å"providing associates with the experience and attitudes needed for success in the future† (Newman Hodgetts, 2005). The management of Crossroads Inc should constantly monitor the latest development in the field of pharmaceuticals and should design its various development programs accordingly. By this was the HR department will not only transmit the needed knowledge and skills to various employees but will also pave the way for the change management process. Training and development should serve as an investment in the form of human capital for Crossroads Inc. The process will not only facilitate the goal achievement but will also serves as potential source of loyalty across the organization. The new company should understand that the training and development program should be designed by utilizing the latest available methods that has proved its efficiency in the pharmaceutical firm. 7. The Pay and Reward: The pay and reward system of Tradco that was a family-owned business by MacHutton, was largely focus to meet the needs of staff, so the workforce regard as main stakeholders in the company, and to be an important role in the company as well. However, HaedPharm is a company that established as a facility of a group of venture capitalists. This firm put more attention to its various stakeholders including employee and management. They are trying to get maximum return and lowest cost. It is clear that these two organizations are stand on the different side of the point of view of benefit of staff. In the interest of the new company, all of these two should change their pay and reward system. The Crossroads Inc should use the proper remuneration system that is fair to both the company and employee. The organization should variety of remuneration system including monthly salaries, straight commission, combination of salary and commission coupled with monthly, quarterly and annual bonuses. When the organization will have a fair remuneration system it will ensure the proper motivation across the organization and the organization will be able to achieve its goals and objectives effectively and efficiently. 8. Union Relation: Unions serve important purpose by working as a link between the labour and the organization. Generally, trade unions are recognized for collective bargaining purpose, and communication between employer and employee. In Tradco, unions playing a good role between employer and employee, more than 50% workers are members of labour union. In the past 15 years, only one sympathy walk-out happened. On the contrary, unions in HardPharm are not as popular as Tradco. A very small number of employees are members of the unions as the company discourage unionization. After merger the unions will serve an important role in the new firm. Like what happens in former companies, if managers want corporation to manage the affairs of the company in appropriate manner, they have to adjust the relationship between unions and staff. The top management of the newly merged company must admit that union is a necessary and vital component of the organization process, they should talk with unions. If the organization failed to admire the role and relationship between the organization and union, the hostile relationship will serve as impediment for the company development. Contemporary, if there are no unions, or company does not recognize unions, then leaders would not know the needs of staff, they could not adjust the management detail. It will affect the development of company in the long run and the company will not be able to achieve its goals and objectives effectively and efficiently. 9. Career Management: Crossroads Inc should consistently monitor its employees and should proper strategic plan through which it increases the skill level of its employees. To achieve this objectives the company should arrange workshops, seminars, visit of key employees to other pharmaceutical industries training courses which will focus on injecting skills and professionalism into employees. These courses will help Crossroads Inc to improve the skills of their employees so that not only company can get maximum out of them but also employees can enrich their nature of job and life standard as well. Along with these training programs, Crossroads Inc should make their employees fully aware of their job requirements by mean of job descriptions so that they can develop a clear picture about at what are necessary requirement of their job and want are not. Indirectly the promotions, transfer to other department also plays a key role in employees job satisfaction. 10. Performance Appraisal: Employees job performance is an important issue for all employers. A performance management system consists of the processes used to identify, encourage, measure, evaluate, improve, and reward employee performance at work. Every functional department of Crossroads Inc should be responsible for carrying out and preparing its performance appraisal report. However these reports must be submitted to HR Department. The performance appraisal system in the company will help the organization to better focus its efforts on the attainment of the organizational goals and objectives by giving timely feedback regarding an individual employee that how best he is going to achieve his objectives. This will also help him to rectify his shortcoming. Moreover the use of appropriate performance appraisal system that is just, equitable and timely serve as a motivating factors and one of the vital component of the successful organization. 11. Conclusion: The Crossroad Inc is taking turning point towards a bright future in which a lot of opportunities might be available for the organization; however the organization still faces a lot of challenges. Crossroads Inc should focus on finding incremental change in its organizing process. The incremental change is change that the Crossroad Inc will undergo through in the natural evolution process. For Crossroad Inc the incremental change process may take the form of introducing new HR system and process (as proposed above) that will augment the organization performance further and help the organization to get competitive advantage over its competitors. But in order to experience this incremental change the organization must be able to constantly monitor and evaluate the environmental forces and take actions in response to change that will provide opportunities to the organization and minimizes its threats. The organization must possessed the needed intellectual capital (Human Resources), who should be able adapt the organization policies according to the demand of the environment. These manager and leaders are known as change agent. According to Robbins Judge, â€Å"change agents are individuals and groups who lead and support the change process by taking responsibility for changing the existing behavior patterns of other people or the social system (Robbins Judge, 2005)†. Furthermore Crossroad Inc should established fair paying and reward system that best on justice and efforts. The organization should also facilitate the creation and execution the labour union approach that will serve as joining link between the organization and its workers. Moreover the Crossroad Inc should invest in its corporate cultures that are going to be form through the merger of two opposite culture. The organization should see this as opportunity to form a strong culture by initiating the proper change. Though training and development could be in progress in short term, the purpose is difficult to achieve at once. Therefore Crossroad Inc should adapt the medium or long-term training and development program for various functional department of the organization. Crossroad Inc can create a positive impact due to the fact that formation of the organization is the result of merger between two different companies who have two different management styles, corporate culture, traditions and workforce management system. Hence, the HR department assume a leading role in shaping the values of employees by creating an organization-wide culture that is based on shared values that will help the organization to realize its mission in the most coherent way. Works Cited Boselie, P., Paauwe, J. (2004). Human Resource Function Competencies in European Companies. Journal of Management , 120-122. Brockbank, W., Ulrich, D., Beatty, R. (1999). The Professional Devlopment: Creating the Future Creators at the University of Michigan Business School. Human Resource Management 38(2) , 111-118. Coff, R. (1994). Human Assets and organziation Control: Implication of the resource-based view. John M. Olin School of Business , Washington University. Losey, M. (2005). Future of Human Resource Management: Leaders Explore the Critical HR Issues of Today and Tommorrow. New Jersy: John Wiley Sons . Newman, D. R., Hodgets, R. M. (2005). Human Resource Management: A Customer Oriented Approach. USA: Prentice Hall Publishers. Newman, D. R., Hodgetts, R. M. (2005). Human Resource Management: A Customer Oriented Approach. USA: Prentice Hall. Peter, T. J., Waterman, R. (1982). In Search of Exchellence. New York: Waner Books. Plessis, D. (2007). Change, Organziational Devleopment and Culture: Human Resource Managements Role in the Future of South Africa. International Review of Business Research Papers 3(1) , 1-10. Robbins, Judge. (2005). Organizational Behavior. USA: Pearson. Wright, P., Dunford, B., Snell, S. (2001). Human Resource and the Resource Based View of the Firm. Journal of Management 27 , 701-721.

Essays --

Bierce had every reader on the edge of their seat awaiting Peyton Farquhar success in his escape. â€Å"If I could free my hands, I might throw off the noose and spring into the stream"(399). Peyton Farquhar thought this in â€Å"An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge† as he awaited his execution. It is the start of his unconscious plans to escape his death and it highlights the important theme of reality verses illusion, the death, and the deception that leads to Peyton Farquhar’s death. Ambrose Bierce "An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge," written in 1890 is about a man named Peyton Farquhar whose escape is widely believable. Although this short story is fiction, it is suspenseful and keeps the reader on the edge of their seat. It is very possible for the reader to be so wrapped up in the desire for Peyton's escape. The story was told as if he were escaping, "He was not conscious of an effort, but a sharp pain in his wrist apprised him that he was trying to free his hands." statements such as this one gave off a direct thought that escaping was exactly what he was doing. The story goes on to give detailed information about his struggle to free himself and his efforts to make it home. By the end of the story the reader is still attached to the idea that this escape was in fact real and successful. The story starts off in Alabama around the Civil War time, where Farquhar is placed on a bridge with his executioners as he awaits his death. In Sharon Talley’s article â€Å"Visions of the Night† she suggest that Bierce was obsessed with death, and the Civil War due to him himself being a civil war soldier. She also felt that he understood the importance of dreams and their connection to the unconsci ous, most importantly the fear of death. In â€Å"Ow... ... (405). The reader took the details and formed them with their initial thoughts of escape, never putting the context clues together and realizing that he actually never escaped at all. â€Å"An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge† shows to be an interesting, dramatic breath taking story with a hopeful main character who was determined to not live in the moment of his current situation. Bierce did a great job of turning Peyton Farquhar’s illusions into reality for the reader’s. Peyton’s illusions came from the fact that he could not face his reality of his death and this was the only way he could cope with it, his psychological succeeds at everything his physical could not. Throughout the entire story, it is nearly impossible to draw the line between what is real and what is being made up by Peyton, the reader is totally submerged into his illusions, deeming them as reality. Essays -- Bierce had every reader on the edge of their seat awaiting Peyton Farquhar success in his escape. â€Å"If I could free my hands, I might throw off the noose and spring into the stream"(399). Peyton Farquhar thought this in â€Å"An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge† as he awaited his execution. It is the start of his unconscious plans to escape his death and it highlights the important theme of reality verses illusion, the death, and the deception that leads to Peyton Farquhar’s death. Ambrose Bierce "An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge," written in 1890 is about a man named Peyton Farquhar whose escape is widely believable. Although this short story is fiction, it is suspenseful and keeps the reader on the edge of their seat. It is very possible for the reader to be so wrapped up in the desire for Peyton's escape. The story was told as if he were escaping, "He was not conscious of an effort, but a sharp pain in his wrist apprised him that he was trying to free his hands." statements such as this one gave off a direct thought that escaping was exactly what he was doing. The story goes on to give detailed information about his struggle to free himself and his efforts to make it home. By the end of the story the reader is still attached to the idea that this escape was in fact real and successful. The story starts off in Alabama around the Civil War time, where Farquhar is placed on a bridge with his executioners as he awaits his death. In Sharon Talley’s article â€Å"Visions of the Night† she suggest that Bierce was obsessed with death, and the Civil War due to him himself being a civil war soldier. She also felt that he understood the importance of dreams and their connection to the unconsci ous, most importantly the fear of death. In â€Å"Ow... ... (405). The reader took the details and formed them with their initial thoughts of escape, never putting the context clues together and realizing that he actually never escaped at all. â€Å"An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge† shows to be an interesting, dramatic breath taking story with a hopeful main character who was determined to not live in the moment of his current situation. Bierce did a great job of turning Peyton Farquhar’s illusions into reality for the reader’s. Peyton’s illusions came from the fact that he could not face his reality of his death and this was the only way he could cope with it, his psychological succeeds at everything his physical could not. Throughout the entire story, it is nearly impossible to draw the line between what is real and what is being made up by Peyton, the reader is totally submerged into his illusions, deeming them as reality.

Physical Education Activities Essay

The high school students are full of energy at this point in time of their developmental stage a normal human beings and as such they engage in various activities. In the subject of Physical Education (P.E.) these students manifest their individual attitude towards participation in Physical Education activities. This study is interested looking closely into this situation and would like to determine the effect of the factors of attitude and teachers’ qualification towards students’ participation in Physical Education activities at Basilan National High School. Recent research has shown that degenerative diseases begin in early childhood. As Kaercher (1981) wrote, â€Å"There’s increasing evidence in youngsters of high cholesterol in the blood, high blood pressure, obesity and other conditions that are associated with heart disease, stroke and other disorders† (p. 20). Bucher (1982) stated that medical specialists blame deaths due to heart disease, cancer, and stroke largely on â€Å"changes in lifestyle characterized by factors over which doctors have little or no control† (p.13). Research suggests that regular physical activity, begun in childhood, may help prevent degenerative diseases. According to Hanson (1974), â€Å"The necessity of physical activity for a growing child is well-documented in terms of growth and fitness needs. Physical activity increases muscle tone, improves respiration and circulation, benefits digestion, aids in controlling obesity, promotes rehabilitation after illness and surgery, and stimulates proper growth and development Physical benefits alone could be sufficient reason for supporting physical education programs.† (p. 2). And Reiff (1977, p. 26) reported that high school students involved in an eight-week program of physical activity showed gains in fitness. The above-cited researches on physical education and its importance is taken into consideration in this study on the factors affecting students’ participation in physical education activities of Basilan National High School. Statement of the Problem This study attempted to determine the attitude and teachers qualification as factors affecting the students’ participation in physical education activities at Basilan National High School; Specifically, it tried to answer the following questions: 1. What is the attitude of the students towards participation in physical education at Basilan National High School in terms of: 1.1`gender 1.2 religion 1.3 ethnicity 1.4 socio-economic status 2. Do the factors of attitude and teachers qualification affect the students’ participation in physical education activities at Basilan National High School? 3. Is there a significant difference in the effect of the factors of attitude and teachers qualification in the students’ participation in physical education activities in terms of: 3.1 gender 3.2 religion 3.3 ethnicity 3.4.socio-economic status? Significance of the Study The results of this study provide additional information for the benefit of the following: School administrators – the data in this study will be subject to further study and consideration and could serve as basis for the construction of approaches and programs to enhance students’ participation the school’s physical education activities. Physical Education Teachers – they will be able to access data gathered in this study for their guide in the preparation of effective teaching methods which could motivate the students to actively participate in the physical education in school. Students – they will gain additional knowledge from the findings in this study and will serve as eye opener for them towards better participation in the physical education activities programmed by the school. Scope and Delimitation of the Study This study is concentrated in the identification of the factors which affect the students participation in physical education activities at Basilan National High School. The data to be gathered from the students in Basilan National High School are from first year to fourth year enrolled for school year 2010 2011. The physical activities are part of the prescribed activities in the physical education school curriculum. Chapter II THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Under this chapter the following are presented and discussed: Related Literature, Theoretical Framework, Conceptual Framework, Research Hypothesis, and Definition of Terms. Related Literature Physical education is a type of class in which elementary, middle, and high school students are usually required to participate. It emphasizes exercise, and sometimes health and nutrition. This class, sometimes known as PE or gym class, usually takes place in a large gymnasium, but it can also take place outdoors. While there are a number of advantages to physical education, like most things, there are also a few disadvantages. Exercise is typically the main goal of physical education. Sometimes, a physical education teacher may instruct his student to perform drills or exercises. Other times, students may play games and sports. Basketball and dodge ball, for example, are two popular PE games. Larger schools may also have an indoor swimming pool that students can use during their gym class. While many of these drills, exercises, and sports can be played indoors, sometimes a PE class should be held outdoors. Football, baseball, and golf, for instance, are typically outside sports. Weather permitting, some schools may even offer skiing or snowshoeing. Online physical fitness classes may seem unusual, but with technological advances comes innovation. A few schools now allow their students to fulfill physical education requirements on their own time. This can be done by letting a student choose an activity to participate in. She can then keep track of how much exercise she has done. A teacher, coach, or parent is usually required to vouch for the student. Physical fitness in school, however, is not just about motivating students to become more active. It also helps younger students develop their psychomotor skills. Some elementary schools may also combine physical education classes with health classes, educating students about healthy choices and nutrition as well. Traditional classes where students play sports also help them learn to work as a team. (www.wisegeek.com/what-is-physical-education.htm) Clearly, physical education requirements can boost overall physical activity levels in children. The authors suggest that school-based activity be considered an important component in meeting the guidelines for physical activity in adolescents. Myers, Strikmiller, et. al. (1996). Physical and sedentary activity in school children grades 5-8; the Bogalusa Heart Study. Medicine Science in Sports and Exercise, vol. 28, pp. 852-859. Physical activity enhances a person’s life both socially and psychologically. Studies have shown that physical activity may modify anxiety and depression (Sachs 1982, p. 44). Layman (1972, p. 5) gave evidence that poor physical condition predisposes individuals to poor mental health. Hanson (1974, p. 2) stated that â€Å"physical activity contributes to the general feeling of well-being. It is an avenue for expression of anger, aggression and happiness a means for discovery of self as well as a social facilitator.† Moreover, according to Espenschade (1960), â€Å"The status of the elementary school child with his peers is dependent to a great extent on his motor skills and his behavior in game situations† (p.3). Clarke (1982, p. 10) added to these statements, suggesting that the child’s realization of personal and social effectiveness relies heavily on guidance within the physical education experience. Research shows a positive relationship between physical activity and academic achievement. In one study, begun in 1951 in an elementary sch ool in Vanves, France, the school day was divided so that four hours were devoted to academics and one to two hours to physical education, art, music, and supervised study (Bailey 1976). By 1960, not only were health, fitness, discipline, and enthusiasm superior in the experimental program, but academic performance also surpassed controlled classes. Similar experiments in Belgium and Japan produced comparable results (Carlson 1982, p. 68), illustrating the importance of physical education to a successful academic program. The importance of wise use of leisure time was supported as early as 1918 in the Seven Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education (National Education Association). Children need recreational skills and a positive attitude toward exercise to enhance their use of leisure. Indeed, â€Å"Research indicates that motor skills learned in physical education classes may be the stimulus for increased activity during leisure time (Seefeldt 1977, p. 3). Gilliam and others demonstrated that physical education programs involving vigorous activities encourage participants to use leisure time more actively (p. 3). Thus, physical education can play a major role in promoting an active, healthy lifestyle. The importance of wise use of leisure time was supported as early as 1918 in the Seven Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education (National Education Association). Children need recreational skills and a positive attitude toward exercise to enhance their use of leisure. Indeed, â€Å"Research indicates that motor skills learned in physical education classes may be the stimulus for increased activity during leisure time (Seefeldt 1977, p. 3). Gilliam and others demonstrated that physical education programs involving vigorous activities encourage participants to use leisure time more actively (p. 3). Thus, physical education can play a major role in promoting an active, healthy lifestyle.

Child Marriage: A Silent Health and Human Rights Issue Essay

Abstract Marriages in which a child under the age of 18 years is involved occur worldwide, but are mainly seen in South Asia, Africa, and Latin America. A human rights violation, child marriage directly impacts girls’ education, health, psychologic well-being, and the health of their offspring. It increases the risk for depression, sexually transmitted infection, cervical cancer, malaria, obstetric fistulas, and maternal mortality. Their offspring are at an increased risk for premature birth and, subsequently, neonatal or infant death. The tradition, driven by poverty, is perpetuated to ensure girls’ financial futures and to reinforce social ties. One of the most effective methods of reducing child marriage and its health consequences is mandating that girls stay in school. Key words: Child marriage, Early marriage, Maternal mortality Child marriage, defined as marriage of a child under 18 years of age, is a silent and yet widespread practice. Today, over 60 million marriages include girls under the age of 18 years: approximately 31 million in South Asia, 14 million in sub-Saharan Africa, and 6.6 million in Latin America and the Caribbean (Figure 1). Each day, 25,000 girls are married and an anticipated 100 million girls will be married in 2012.1 Over 60% of girls are married under the age of 18 in some sub-Saharan countries and Bangladesh, and 40% to 60% of girls undergo child marriage in India (Figure 2). Figure 1 Number of women aged 20–24 who were married or in union before age 18, by region (2006). CEE/CIS, Central and Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States. Reproduced with permission from United Nations Children’s Fund. Progress †¦ Figure 2 Percentage of women aged 20–24 who were married or in union before age 18 (1987–2006). Reproduced with permission from United Nations Children’s Fund. Progress for Children: A World Fit for Children Statistical Review. New York: †¦ Child marriage has been referred to as early marriage or child brides, but these terms are not optimal. Early marriage does not imply that children are involved, and the term is vague because an early marriage for one society may be considered late by another. The term child brides glorifies the tradition by portraying an image of joy and celebration. Most of these marriages are arranged by parents, and girls rarely meet their future husband before the wedding. The girls know that after the wedding they will move to their husband’s household, become the responsibility of their in-laws, and might not see their own family or friends for some time. Although child marriage includes boys, most children married under the age of 1 8 years are girls. In Mali, the ratio of married girls to boys is 72:1; in Kenya, it is 21:1; in Indonesia, it is 7.5:1; in Brazil, it is 6:1; and even in the United States, the ratio is 8:1.2–4 Go to: Human and Children’s Rights The United Nations and other international agencies have declared that child marriage violates human rights and children’s rights. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that individuals must enter marriage freely with full consent and must be at full age. In 1979, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women stated that child marriage is illegal. In 1989, the Convention on the Rights of the Child defined children as persons under the age of 18 years. Many countries passed laws changing the legal age of marriage to 18 years, but enforcement of these laws, and of laws requiring marriages to be registered, is weak.5 For example, although the legal age of marriage is 18 years, in Mali 65% of girls are married at a younger age; in Mozambique, it is 57%; and in India, it is 50% (Figure 3). In some parts of Ethiopia, although the legal age of marriage is 15 years, 50% of younger girls are married, and in Mali, 39% of younger girls are married. Furthermore, in some regions, an arranged marriage occurs at birth.6 Figure 3 (A) Percentage of girls (aged 15–19 years) who are currently married. (B) Percentage of women aged 20 to 24 years married before age 18. Reproduced with permission from Mathur S, Greene M, Malhotra A. Too Young to Wed: The Lives, Rights, and Health †¦ Go to: Factors Driving Child Marriage Three main forces drive child marriages: poverty, the need to reinforce social ties, and the belief that it offers protection. Child marriage is predominantly seen in areas of poverty. Parents are faced with 2 economic incentives: to ensure their daughter’s financial security and to reduce the economic burden daughters place on the family. Child marriage is first and foremost a product of sheer economic need. Girls are costly to feed, clothe, and educate, and they eventually leave the household. Marriage brings a dowry to the bride’s family. The younger the girl, the higher the dowry, and the sooner the economic burden of raising the girl is lifted. By marrying their daughter to a â€Å"good† family, parents also establish social ties between tribes or clans and improve their social status. Parents also believe that marrying their daughters young protects them from rape, premarital sexual activity, unintended pregnancies, and sexually transmitted infections, espe cially human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and AIDS.5 Go to: Health Consequences of Child Marriage Isolation and Depression Once married, girls are taken to their husband’s household, where they assume the role of wife, domestic worker, and, eventually, mother. These new homes can be in a different village or town. Because of the high dowry paid, husbands are usually much older than the girls (and thus have little in common with them) and their new brides are expected to reproduce. Polygamy may also be acceptable in some of these regions. As a result, the girls feel rejected, isolated, and depressed. Some girls realize that survival requires embracing their new environment and proving their fertility. They lose their childhood and miss the opportunity to play, develop friendships, and be educated. Risk of Sexually Transmitted Infection and Cervical Cancer Parents believe that marrying their daughters early protects them from HIV/AIDS. Research has shown the opposite: marriage by the age of 20 years is a risk factor for HIV infection in girls.7 In Kenya, married girls are 50% more likely than unmarried girls to become infected with HIV. In Zambia, the risk is even higher (59%). And in Uganda, the HIV prevalence rate of married girls and single girls between the ages of 15 and 19 years is 89% and 66%, respectively. Their husbands infected these girls. Because the girls try to prove their fertility, they had high-frequency, unprotected intercourse with their husbands. Their older husbands had prior sexual partners or were polygamous. In addition, the girls’ virginal status and physical immaturity increase the risk of HIV transmission secondary to hymenal, vaginal, or cervical lacerations.5 Other sexually transmitted infections, such as herpes simplex virus type 2, gonorrhea, and chlamydia, are also more frequently transmitted and enhance the girls’ vulnerability to HIV. Research demonstrates that child marriage also increases the risk of human papillomavirus transmission and cervical cancer.8 Risks During Pregnancy Pregnant girls in malaria regions were found to be at higher risk for infection. Of the 10.5 million girls and women who become infected with malaria, 50% die. Their highest risk is during their first pregnancy. Pregnancy not only increases the risk of acquiring malaria, but pregnant girls under the age of 19 have a significantly higher malaria density than pregnant women over the age of 19.9 They are also at significant risk of malaria-related complications such as severe anemia, pulmonary edema, and hypoglycemia. Rates of HIV and malaria coinfection are highest in Central African Republic, Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, where more than 90% of the population is exposed to malaria and more than 10% are HIV positive. Having both diseases complicates the management and treatment of each. HIV-infected patients have a higher likelihood of getting a more severe form of the malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum. They are less likely to respond as well to antimalaria medication. Malaria increases HIV viral load and increases the mother-to-child HIV transmission rate. Data demonstrate that the combination of these diseases proves deadly to the young pregnant mother.10 Risks During Labor and Delivery Deliveries from child marriages are â€Å"too soon, too close, too many, or too late.†11 Forty-five percent of girls in Mali, 42% in Uganda, and 25% in Ethiopia have given birth by the age of 18. In Western nations, the rates are 1% in Germany, 2% in France, and 10% in the United States (Figure 4). Girls between the ages of 10 and 14 years are 5 to 7 times more likely to die in childbirth; girls between the ages of 15 and 19 years are twice as likely.12 High death rates are secondary to eclampsia, postpartum hemorrhage, sepsis, HIV infection, malaria, and obstructed labor. Girls aged 10 to 15 years have small pelvises and are not ready for childbearing. Their risk for obstetric fistula is 88%.13 Figure 4 Percentage of women, aged 20 to 24 years, married and giving birth by age 18. Reproduced with permission from Mathur S, Greene M, Malhotra A. Too Young to Wed: The Lives, Rights, and Health of Young Married Girls. Washington, DC: International Center †¦ Risks for Infants Mothers under the age of 18 have a 35% to 55% higher risk of delivering a preterm or low-birthweight infant than mothers older than 19 years. The infant mortality rate is 60% higher when the mother is under the age of 18 years. Data demonstrate that even after surviving the first year, children younger than 5 years had a 28% higher mortality rate in the young mothers cohort.14 This morbidity and mortality is due to the young mothers’ poor nutrition, physical and emotional immaturity, lack of access to social and reproductive services, and higher risk for infectious diseases. Go to: Discussion Disheartening as this information may be, there is encouraging news. Data show that in countries where poverty has decreased, such as Korea, Taiwan, and Thailand, the incidence of child marriage has also declined. Media attention raises awareness of the issue and can prompt change. After a highly publicized story in 2008, in which a 10-year-old Yemeni girl fled her husband 2 months after being married and successfully obtained a divorce, Yemen increased the legal age for marriage from 15 to 18 years. More importantly, numerous children, inspired by this case, have sued for divorce.15 Research has long enforced the importance of education for girls and their families. Child marriage truncates girls’ childhood, stops their education, and impacts their health and the health of their infants. Governmental and nongovernmental policies aimed at educating the community, raising awareness, engaging local and religious leaders, involving parents, and empowering girls through education and employment can help stop child marriage. Programs that have shown success are those that give families financial incentives to keep their daughters in school, those that feed children during school hours so parents do not have to bear that responsibility, and those that promise employment once girls have completed their schooling.1 Education not only delays marriage, pregnancy, and childbearing, but school-based sex education can be effective in changing the awareness, attitudes, and practices leading to risky sexual behavior in marriage. Main Points †¢Over 60 million marriages include a girl under the age of 18 years. †¢The main forces that drive child marriage are poverty, the need to reinforce social ties, and the belief that marriage at an early age protects girls from rape, unintended pregnancy, and sexually transmitted infection. †¢Marriage before the age of 18 increases the rate of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection in girls. †¢High death rates during pregnancy are secondary to eclampsia, postpartum hemorrhage, sepsis, HIV infections, and obstructed labor. The infant mortality rate is 60% higher when the mother is under the age of 18 years. †¢Education not only delays marriage, pregnancy, and childbearing, but school-based sex education can be effective in changing the awareness, attitudes, and practices leading to risky sexual behavior in marriage. Go to: References 1. Mathur S, Greene M, Malhotra A. Too Young to Wed: The Lives, Rights and Health of Young Married Girls. 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Strategic Overview and Background Note. [Accessed February 25, 2009]. http://www.etharc.org/aidscampaign/publications/wac2004.pdf. 8. Zhang ZF, Parkin DM, Yu SZ, et al. Risk factors for cancer of the cervix in a rural Chinese population. Int J Cancer. 1989;43:762–767. [PubMed] 9. Dzeing-Ella A, Nze Obiang PC, Tchoua R, et al. Severe falciparum malaria in Gabonese children: clinical and laboratory features. Malar J. 2005;4:1. [PMC free article] [PubMed] 10. World Health Organization, authors. Malaria and HIV Interactions and Their Implications for Public Health Policy. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2004. [Accessed February 25, 2009]. http://www.who.int/malaria/mal aria_HIV/MalariaHIVinteractions_report.pdf. 11. Marriage and the family. [Accessed February 25, 2009]. Interactive Population Center Web site. http://www.unfpa.org/intercenter/cycle/marriage.htm. 12. United Nations, authors. We the Children: End-Decade Review of the Follow-Up to the World Summit for Children. 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